Groundwater Crisis in India

Although more than 2/3^rd of the Earth’s surface is covered with water, there is a real shortage of freshwater across the globe. Groundwater, which constitutes almost 0.7% of the terrestrial waters, is the largest volume of human-available freshwater resource across the globe. Groundwater resources depend on recharge, precipitation patterns, intensification of extreme climate events, along with hydrogeological properties of the subsurface.

Although more than 2/3^rd of the Earth’s surface is covered with water, there is a real shortage of freshwater across the globe. Groundwater, which constitutes almost 0.7% of the terrestrial waters, is the largest volume of human-available freshwater resource across the globe. Groundwater resources depend on recharge, precipitation patterns, intensification of extreme climate events, along with hydrogeological properties of the subsurface.

Agriculture has been the lifeline for millions of Indian farmers since the Green Revolution in the 1960s and groundwater has played a vital role in irrigating crops such as rice which are water-hungry but are vital to feed the India’s ever-growing population. However, over the past 3 decades, India has been facing intense and rapid depletion of groundwater stores mostly caused by the human-induced climate change and uncontrolled groundwater-extraction. Satellite data (between 2002 and 2016) has revealed that groundwater has been undergoing severe depletion in northern and eastern India mainly because of intense and unprecedented extraction for crop irrigation.The central and southern regionshave showed stability owing to water policy changes and increased rainfall.

Basic terminology

Groundwater is the water that seeps through rocks and soil and is stored below the ground. The rocks in which groundwater is stored are called aquifers. Aquifers are typically made up of gravel, sand, sandstone or limestone.An aquitard is a zone within the Earth that restricts the flow of groundwater from one aquifer to another. A completely impermeable aquitard is called an aquiclude or aquifuge. Aquitards comprise layers of either clay or non-porous rock with low hydraulic conductivity.

The groundwater flows from recharge zones to discharge zones, along flow paths which can be many kilometres long. Recharge typically occurs as rainfall or snowmelt find their way to the water table but can also result from human activities such as irrigation of cropland. Discharge can occur via springs, seeps, and through flowing wells. During its flow along the flow path, it could react with sediments and rocks, and dissolve them. This could facilitate solutes as nutrients to plants and animals (including humans). However, detrimental chemicals produced by human activity (i.e. anthropogenic pollutants) could infiltrateand contaminate groundwater systems, which would eventually be devastating for the planet.

Importance of groundwater

• Source of fresh water- Groundwater represents about 30% of world’s fresh water. Groundwater accounts for 1/3^rd of the fresh water consumed by humans on an average. However, some parts of the world are completely dependent on groundwater.
• Economic role- Groundwater is a very important natural resource and has a significant role in the economy. It is the main source of water for irrigation and the food industry. Globally, irrigation accounts for more than 70% of water surface and groundwater withdrawal.

Groundwater is estimated to be used for nearly 43% of the total irrigation water use.Groundwater supports livelihoods of over 26 crore farmers and agricultural labourers. Groundwater is a natural resource often found close to the final consumers and therefore does not require large investments in terms of infrastructure and treatment, as it often is necessary when harvesting surface water.

• Environmental role- Groundwater plays a very important role for the environment in maintaining the water level and flow intorivers, lakes and wetlands, especiallyduring the drier months. It becomes essential for the wild life and plants living in these environments. Further, it could play a significant role insustaining navigation through inland waters.

Issues related to India’s groundwater extraction (with Statistical affirmation)

• The Unwanted Leader- The World Water Development Report by UNESCO states that India is the largest extractor of groundwater in the world. The extraction by India has been so huge that it greater than the combinedwithdrawal by countries placed at 2^nd (United States of America) and 3^rd (China)
• Unprecedented groundwater withdrawal-Population rise, urbanisation, cropping pattern and modern lifestyle has led to unsustainable abstraction of available groundwater. For e.g.,245 billion m³ of groundwater was abstracted from India during 2011 only, which was nearly a quarter of the global groundwater withdrawal.

More than 80% of the available groundwater has been withdrawn in most parts of the country already as stated by FAO in 2013.21 major cities in India,including Delhi, Chennai and Bengaluru,are expected to run out of groundwater by 2020, according to the NITI Aayog.

• Uneven groundwater distribution- During each hydrological year,around 4000 billion m³ of water flows into the hydrological systemsin India. Of these, unaccounted losses in processes like outflow to oceans, evapotranspiration, and seepage to very deep levels or pipeline leakages constitute nearly 50% of the water budget.

Out of the accounted water resource of 2000 billion cubic meters, 60% is present in the great alluvial plain aquifers of the Indus-Ganges-Brahmaputra (“bread-basket” of South Asia) river systems in north India, which constitutes only 35% of the Indian sub-continent.

• Water scarcity and food scarcity- Theskewed distribution of groundwater resources burdened by the stress of sustaining a 1.3 billion population has resulted in increasing water crisis.By 2030, the country’s water demand is projected to be twice the available supply, implying severe water scarcity for millions and an eventual loss of around 6% of the country’s GDP.

Prolonged issue of water scarcity would eventually result in food scarcity.Further, it would affect food supplies causing prices to soar and fuelling social unrest.

• Groundwater contamination- Presently, more than 70% of the domestic water supply across the country is furnished by groundwater. However, concerns about the availability of safe water in many areas due to the presence of contaminantsare rising. Around1/4^thof the 300 billion m³ of groundwater is brackish and non-potable in northern India and nearly 40% of groundwater is contaminated by pollutants such as arsenic (As) and Fluoride (F).

According to NITI Aayog’s “Composite Water Management Index”, 70% of our water resources are contaminated due to natural and anthropogenic reasons.Prolonged exposure to water contaminated with elevated levels of arsenic could cause serious health conditions, such as skin lesions, hyperkeratosis, and cancer.

The extent and effect of emerging contaminants (e.g. nitrate, pesticides, antibiotics etc.) is yet to be accounted for.On a larger picture, around 60% of the groundwater in the northern India is, therefore, unsafe and unusable.

• Sad state of sanitation- Groundwater pollution could also be linked to improper sanitation. Lack of proper dedicated sewerage systems outside major urban centres has encouraged millions of Indians to resort to open defecation.

Open defecation results in the possibility of infiltration of human excreta directly to the groundwater.This would eventually be withdrawn by shallow wells for domestic purposes resulting in water-borne diseases such as diarrhoea, cholera, etc.

• Urban vs Rural demands- Groundwater availability for the multiplying water necessities of the urban population has been an emerging concern. A rural household uses nearly 40 litres of water an average. On the contrary, the average per capita water use by urban population is around 130 litres. Sadly, most of this excess water is abstracted from groundwater.

Moreover, upgradation of living standards has led to rapid transformation of food habits and more water-intense foods like meat and dairy products are replacing the local agriculture-based food products.

Further, newer industries have developed in the peri-urban hinterlands to cater to the increasing urban populations. These industries have excessively exploited groundwater resources and have polluted them as well.

• Neither quality nor quantity burdened by shortage- Large-scale use of groundwater for human consumption, domestic purposes and agricultural production has consequently exposed the Indian population to issues related to water quantity (shortage or excess of groundwater resources), as well as water quality (lack of availability of potable and safe drinking water for human intake).

About 75% of households do not have drinking water at home and84% ruralhouseholdsdo not have piped water access, with India currently ranked 120 among 122 in the water quality index.

• State Subject- Water is a state subject in India. Administration at the Centre as well as in the states has tried but failed to fully resolve the questions of who really owns the groundwater, how it should be mapped, extracted and replenished.
  
  

Reasons for Depletion of Groundwater

• Excessive extraction- Groundwater depletion most commonly occurs because of the frequent pumping of water from the ground, more quickly than it can renew and replenish itself, leading to a dangerous shortage in the groundwater supply.

Green Revolution enabled water intensive crops to be grown in drought prone and water deficit areas, leading to excessive extraction of groundwater.

• Overpopulation - The stress of sustaining a 1.3 billion population for agricultural, industrial, and domestic needs has resulted in groundwater depletion. Agriculturedemands a large amount of groundwater.

Furthermore, the industries have exploited and polluted the groundwater resources. The urban lifestyles and unrestrained urbanizationhave devastated the already perishing groundwater resources.

Additionally,deforestation, unscientific methods of agriculture, chemical effluents from industries, and lack of sanitation has led to the pollution of groundwater, making it unusable.

• Government Policies- Inadequate regulation of groundwater laws has encouraged the exhaustion of groundwater resources without any penalty.

Subsidies on electricity and high MSP for water intensive crops are one of the leading reasons for depletion of groundwater. Additionally, subsidies on agro-chemicals such as fertilizers and pesticides have led to damage and depletion of groundwater resources.

• Climate change-Increased variability in precipitation and more extreme weather events caused by climate change could lead to longer periods of droughts and floods, which directly affects availability and dependency on groundwater.

During long periods of droughts there is a higher risk of depletion of aquifers. Simultaneously, indirect climate change impacts such as intensification of human activities and land use changes increase the demand for groundwater.

Impact of groundwater depletion

• Over-extraction- Groundwater depletion will force us to pump water from deeper within the Earth. The more we extract groundwater right below the Earth’s surface, the further it will be depleted. Consequently, we will have to usemore resources to develop alternative methods to reach further down the ground.
• Environmental damage- Large bodies of water would become shallowerdue to groundwater depletion. Over time, less water would enter the aquifers as the existing surface water would evaporate. As the water becomes less deep, it wouldaffect everything in that region, including fish, wildlife(fauna) and plants (flora).

For example, wildlife, marine animals, and agriculture have been suffering near the Gulf of Mexico because the Mississippi River rich in industrial farming runoffshavemade its way into the water. Parts of Mexico City are falling as the water table lowers and creates sinkholes that destroy buildings and homes.

• Water and Food scarcity-With thedepletion of aquifers,water supply, food supply and people will suffer. The depletion of the Colorado River and the Ogallala aquifer serve as examples of large groundwater reserves that are being depleted, despite how necessary they are to our economy and well-being.Huge amounts of water are being extracted from these aquifers and there is no time for it to refill. Unfortunately, strict orders are not in place to regulate how much water could be pumped from these reservoirs.

Solutions to Groundwater Depletion

• Prioritised lifestyle changes- Water is used so freely that it is often a part of outdoor decor ideas and used for major attractions like amusement parks. Large amounts of water are used for swimming pools while water hoses are kept running to wash cars, for gardening, and for various illicit purposes.

As individuals, we coulduse less water for luxury purposes. Everyone should do their part to use less water whenever possible. Interestingly, one could save a massive amount of water by not using water for decorative and unnecessary reasons.

• Manage the demand- There is a deep nexus between groundwater and energy. We have to price the energy, if we cannot price the water(such as Jyotigram in Gujarat). Appropriate economic incentives must come sooner rather than later.
• Alternative identification- One of the most effective ways to address the issue of groundwater depletion could be to find alternative sources of water. Alternative water sources could be used to help replenish aquifers. Obtaining water from different sources would furnish aquifers with adequate time to refill.
• Rationalise groundwater use - It is not good economics or good environmental stewardship to drain the aquifers of Punjab to grow rice, nor those of arid Kutch to grow sugarcane. We mustincentivise the shift in production from water-scarce to water-surplus aquifers, but in a sustainable way.
• Efficient utilisation of groundwater- Another way of efficiently using groundwater is by encouraging farmers to adopt micro-irrigation techniques such as drip irrigation and micro-sprinklers. Government has initiated schemes like DRIP programme, more drop per crop, KrishiSinchaiYojana to ensure economical water use practices in agriculture.
• Government role- Restrictions must be imposed by government to cut off the access to ground-water in areas identified as "critical" and "dark zones", where the water table is overused or very low. Research and scientific evaluations should be done before forming any policy. Water depletion could be controlled by reducing subsidies on electricity and fertilizers, as tried out in Punjab. Correspondingly, they offer cash compensation to farmers for every unit of electricity saved.

Atal BhujalYojana has been introduced by Ministry ofJal Shakti. Itseeks to strengthen the institutional framework of administering groundwater resources and aims to bring about behavioural changes at the community level for sustainable groundwater resource management.

Madhya Pradesh is mulling 'right to water' - a legislation aimed at ensuring adequate water for every person in the urban areas in the state. Every household in urban Madhya Pradesh would get piped potable water supply of at least 55 litres a day.

• Bottom-up approach- There is a need to treat water as common resource rather than private property to prevent its overexploitation. Creating regulatoryoptions at the community level, such as Panchayats, could also be among the feasible solutions.

Bottom-up approach could be followed by empowering the local community to become active participants in managing groundwater. Further, community management of ground water could be an effective solution wherein the user community is the primary custodian of groundwater and is charged with implementing management measures.

• Civil society participation- It will be very difficult for the government to retrofit a sensible governance system on the current model of private, dispersed and democratised access to groundwater. NGOs do a better job of engaging people in a participatory approach, by encouraging stewardship rather than exploitation. Good public policy and laws help, but we truly need new behavioural responses that allow us to respect water.
• Capacity building- Crucial hydrogeological skills should be imparted to non-profits and rural practitioners to improve decentralised water management in India.Involvement of individuals and government is necessary at the same time to tackle the issue of groundwater depletion. Traditional methods of water conservation could be encouraged to minimize the depletion of water resources.
• Preventing contamination-Problems and issues such as water logging, salinity, agricultural toxins, and industrial effluents, all need to be properly looked into. Use of chemicalsmust be minimisedand disposedofproperly when usedso that toxic materials are not added into our water supplies.
• Technological interventions- Technology must be used extensively for determining the relationship between surface hydrological units and hydrological units below the ground, identification of groundwater recharge areas, mapping of groundwaterArtificial recharge of tube wells, water reuse enhancement, afforestation, and scientific methods of agriculture should be introduced compulsorily.
• Funding of Research and Initiatives- More comprehensive research and additional fundingcould help minimise thedepletion of groundwater. Laws and regulations could be to reduce the pumping of groundwater.Additional funding should be imparted to support initiatives that not only study the supply of groundwater, but also seek to find sustainable ways to use less of it.

Conclusion

The most important point about using groundwater is to find out the right balance between withdrawing and letting the aquifer’s level recover to avoid overexploitation and pollution of such a crucial resource. The groundwater crisis cannot be alleviated in India by any single action whether community based legislation, traditional water harvesting systems, or reliance on market forces.

The effective solution to the freshwater crisis is to integrate conservation and development activities ranging from water extraction to water management at the local level. Further,communities’ awareness and involvement is critical for the success of crisis management. All this would ultimately pave the way for combining the conservation of environment with the basic needs of people.

India is a groundwater-dependent nation, where securing groundwater for agricultural, industrial and domestic sectors is extremely significant to the nation’s sustenance and growth. Atal BhujalYojana would be the first step towards restoring and recharging the health of the country’s aquifers. There is a need to move to more long-term solutions.

Scientifically prudent and adaptive groundwater management strategies are immediately required to secure, sustain and refresh the accessible, residual, unpolluted groundwater. Pervasive groundwater governance is required to transform the country from a “groundwater-deficient” to “ground-water sufficient” nation.